Adaptive immune cells are necessary for SARS-CoV-2-induced pathology.

Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) is causing the ongoing global pandemic associated with morbidity and mortality in humans. Although disease severity correlates with immune dysregulation, the cellular mechanisms of inflammation and pathogenesis of COVID-19 remain relatively poorly understood. Here, we used mouse-adapted SARS-CoV-2 strain MA10 to investigate the role of adaptive immune cells in disease. We found that while infected wild-type mice lost ~10% weight by 3 to 4 days postinfection, rag-/- mice lacking B and T lymphocytes did not lose weight. Infected lungs at peak weight loss revealed lower pathology scores, fewer neutrophils, and lower interleukin-6 and tumor necrosis factor-α in rag-/- mice. Mice lacking αß T cells also had less severe weight loss, but adoptive transfer of T and B cells into rag-/- mice did not significantly change the response. Collectively, these findings suggest that while adaptive immune cells are important for clearing SARS-CoV-2 infection, this comes at the expense of increased inflammation and pathology.

Migraine inhibitor olcegepant reduces weight loss and IL-6 release in SARS-CoV-2 infected older mice with neurological signs.

COVID-19 can result in neurological symptoms such as fever, headache, dizziness, and nausea. However, neurological signs of SARS-CoV-2 infection have been hardly assessed in mouse models. Here, we infected two commonly used wildtype mice lines (C57BL/6 and 129S) with mouse-adapted SARS-CoV-2 and demonstrated neurological signs including motion-related dizziness. We then evaluated whether the Calcitonin Gene-Related Peptide (CGRP) receptor antagonist, olcegepant, used in migraine treatment could mitigate acute neuroinflammatory and neurological responses to SARS-COV-2 infection. We infected wildtype C57BL/6J and 129/SvEv mice, and a 129 αCGRP-null mouse line with a mouse-adapted SARS-CoV-2 virus, and evaluated the effect of CGRP receptor antagonism on the outcome of that infection. First, we determined that CGRP receptor antagonism provided protection from permanent weight loss in older (>12 m) C57BL/6J and 129 SvEv mice. We also observed acute fever and motion-induced dizziness in all older mice, regardless of treatment. However, in both wildtype mouse lines, CGRP antagonism reduced acute interleukin 6 (IL-6) levels by half, with virtually no IL-6 release in mice lacking αCGRP. These findings suggest that migraine inhibitors such as those blocking CGRP signaling protect against acute IL-6 release and subsequent inflammatory events after SARS-CoV-2 infection, which may have repercussions for related pandemic and/or endemic coronaviruses.

Pathogenicity and virulence of henipaviruses.

Paramyxoviruses are a family of single-stranded negative-sense RNA viruses, many of which are responsible for a range of respiratory and neurological diseases in humans and animals. Among the most notable are the henipaviruses, which include the deadly Nipah (NiV) and Hendra (HeV) viruses, the causative agents of outbreaks of severe disease and high case fatality rates in humans and animals. NiV and HeV are maintained in fruit bat reservoirs primarily in the family Pteropus and spillover into humans directly or by an intermediate amplifying host such as swine or horses. Recently, non-chiropteran associated Langya (LayV), Gamak (GAKV), and Mojiang (MojV) viruses have been discovered with confirmed or suspected ability to cause disease in humans or animals. These viruses are less genetically related to HeV and NiV yet share many features with their better-known counterparts. Recent advances in surveillance of wild animal reservoir viruses have revealed a high number of henipaviral genome sequences distributed across most continents, and mammalian orders previously unknown to harbour henipaviruses. In this review, we summarize the current knowledge on the range of pathogenesis observed for the henipaviruses as well as their replication cycle, epidemiology, genomics, and host responses. We focus on the most pathogenic viruses, including NiV, HeV, LayV, and GAKV, as well as the experimentally non-pathogenic CedV. We also highlight the emerging threats posed by these and potentially other closely related viruses.

Age-dependent acquisition of pathogenicity by SARS-CoV-2 Omicron BA.5.

Pathology studies of SARS-CoV-2 Omicron variants of concern (VOC) are challenged by the lack of pathogenic animal models. While Omicron BA.1 and BA.2 replicate in K18-hACE2 transgenic mice, they cause minimal to negligible morbidity and mortality, and less is known about more recent Omicron VOC. Here, we show that in contrast to Omicron BA.1, BA.5-infected mice exhibited high levels of morbidity and mortality, correlating with higher early viral loads. Neither Omicron BA.1 nor BA.5 replicated in brains, unlike most prior VOC. Only Omicron BA.5-infected mice exhibited substantial weight loss, high pathology scores in lungs, and high levels of inflammatory cells and cytokines in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid, and 5- to 8-month-old mice exhibited 100% fatality. These results identify a rodent model for pathogenesis or antiviral countermeasure studies for circulating SARS-CoV-2 Omicron BA.5. Further, differences in morbidity and mortality between Omicron BA.1 and BA.5 provide a model for understanding viral determinants of pathogenicity.

Cell-Cell Fusion Assays to Study Henipavirus Entry and Evaluate Therapeutics.

Henipaviruses include the deadly zoonotic Nipah (NiV) and Hendra (HeV) paramyxoviruses, which have caused recurring outbreaks in human populations. A hallmark of henipavirus infection is the induction of cell-cell fusion (syncytia), caused by the expression of the attachment (G) and fusion (F) glycoproteins on the surface of infected cells. The interactions of G and F with each other and with receptors on cellular plasma membranes drive both viral entry and syncytia formation and are thus of great interest. While F shares structural and functional homologies with class I fusion proteins of other viruses such as influenza and human immunodeficiency viruses, the intricate interactions between the G and F glycoproteins allow for unique approaches to studying the class I membrane fusion process. This allows us to study cell-cell fusion and viral entry kinetics for BSL-4 pathogens such as NiV and HeV under BSL-2 conditions using recombinant DNA techniques. Here, we present approaches to studying henipavirus-induced membrane fusion for currently identified and emerging henipaviruses, including more traditional syncytia counting-based cell-cell fusion assay and a new heterologous fluorescent dye exchange cell-cell fusion assay.

Characterization of the cellular lipid composition during SARS-CoV-2 infection.

Emerging and re-emerging zoonotic viral diseases continue to significantly impact public health. Of particular interest are enveloped viruses (e.g., SARS-CoV-2, the causative pathogen of COVID-19), which include emerging pathogens of highest concern. Enveloped viruses contain a viral envelope that encapsulates the genetic material and nucleocapsid, providing structural protection and functional bioactivity. The viral envelope is composed of a coordinated network of glycoproteins and lipids. The lipid composition of the envelope consists of lipids preferentially appropriated from host cell membranes. Subsequently, changes to the host cell lipid metabolism and an accounting of what lipids are changed during viral infection provide an opportunity to fingerprint the host cell's response to the infecting virus. To address this issue, we comprehensively characterized the lipid composition of VeroE6-TMPRSS2 cells infected with SARS-CoV-2. Our approach involved using an innovative solid-phase extraction technique to efficiently extract cellular lipids combined with liquid chromatography coupled to high-resolution tandem mass spectrometry. We identified lipid changes in cells exposed to SARS-CoV-2, of which the ceramide to sphingomyelin ratio was most prominent. The identification of a lipid profile (i.e., lipid fingerprint) that is characteristic of cellular SARS-CoV-2 infection lays the foundation for targeting lipid metabolism pathways to further understand how enveloped viruses infect cells, identifying opportunities to aid antiviral and vaccine development.

Thermophobic Trehalose Glycopolymers as Smart C-Type Lectin Receptor Vaccine Adjuvants.

Herein, this work reports the first synthetic vaccine adjuvants that attenuate potency in response to small, 1-2 °C changes in temperature about their lower critical solution temperature (LCST). Adjuvant additives significantly increase vaccine efficacy. However, adjuvants also cause inflammatory side effects, such as pyrexia, which currently limits their use. To address this, a thermophobic vaccine adjuvant engineered to attenuate potency at temperatures correlating to pyrexia is created. Thermophobic adjuvants are synthesized by combining a rationally designed trehalose glycolipid vaccine adjuvant with thermoresponsive poly-N-isoporpylacrylamide (NIPAM) via reversible addition fragmentation chain transfer (RAFT) polymerization. The resulting thermophobic adjuvants exhibit LCSTs near 37 °C, and self-assembled into nanoparticles with temperature-dependent sizes (90-270 nm). Thermophobic adjuvants activate HEK-mMINCLE and other innate immune cell lines as well as primary mouse bone marrow derived dendritic cells (BMDCs) and bone marrow derived macrophages (BMDMs). Inflammatory cytokine production is attenuated under conditions mimicking pyrexia (above the LCST) relative to homeostasis (37 °C) or below the LCST. This thermophobic behavior correlated with decreased adjuvant Rg is observed by DLS, as well as glycolipid-NIPAM shielding interactions are observed by NOESY-NMR. In vivo, thermophobic adjuvants enhance efficacy of a whole inactivated influenza A/California/04/2009 virus vaccine, by increasing neutralizing antibody titers and CD4+ /44+ /62L+ lung and lymph node central memory T cells, as well as providing better protection from morbidity after viral challenge relative to unadjuvanted control vaccine. Together, these results demonstrate the first adjuvants with potency regulated by temperature. This work envisions that with further investigation, this approach can enhance vaccine efficacy while maintaining safety.

Cell-autonomous requirement for ACE2 across organs in lethal mouse SARS-CoV-2 infection.

Angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2) is the cell-surface receptor for Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2). While its central role in Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) pathogenesis is indisputable, there remains significant debate regarding the role of this transmembrane carboxypeptidase in the disease course. These include the role of soluble versus membrane-bound ACE2, as well as ACE2-independent mechanisms that may contribute to viral spread. Testing these roles requires in vivo models. Here, we report humanized ACE2-floxed mice in which hACE2 is expressed from the mouse Ace2 locus in a manner that confers lethal disease and permits cell-specific, Cre-mediated loss of function, and LSL-hACE2 mice in which hACE2 is expressed from the Rosa26 locus enabling cell-specific, Cre-mediated gain of function. Following exposure to SARS-CoV-2, hACE2-floxed mice experienced lethal cachexia, pulmonary infiltrates, intravascular thrombosis and hypoxemia-hallmarks of severe COVID-19. Cre-mediated loss and gain of hACE2 demonstrate that neuronal infection confers lethal cachexia, hypoxemia, and respiratory failure in the absence of lung epithelial infection. In this series of genetic experiments, we demonstrate that ACE2 is absolutely and cell-autonomously required for SARS-CoV-2 infection in the olfactory epithelium, brain, and lung across diverse cell types. Therapies inhibiting or blocking ACE2 at these different sites are likely to be an effective strategy towards preventing severe COVID-19.

The Human Gut Virome and Its Relationship with Nontransmissible Chronic Diseases.

The human gastrointestinal tract contains large communities of microorganisms that are in constant interaction with the host, playing an essential role in the regulation of several metabolic processes. Among the gut microbial communities, the gut bacteriome has been most widely studied in recent decades. However, in recent years, there has been increasing interest in studying the influences that other microbial groups can exert on the host. Among them, the gut virome is attracting great interest because viruses can interact with the host immune system and metabolic functions; this is also the case for phages, which interact with the bacterial microbiota. The antecedents of virome-rectification-based therapies among various diseases were also investigated. In the near future, stool metagenomic investigation should include the identification of bacteria and phages, as well as their correlation networks, to better understand gut microbiota activity in metabolic disease progression.

SARS-CoV-2 Spike triggers barrier dysfunction and vascular leak via integrins and TGF-ß signaling.

Severe COVID-19 is associated with epithelial and endothelial barrier dysfunction within the lung as well as in distal organs. While it is appreciated that an exaggerated inflammatory response is associated with barrier dysfunction, the triggers of vascular leak are unclear. Here, we report that cell-intrinsic interactions between the Spike (S) glycoprotein of SARS-CoV-2 and epithelial/endothelial cells are sufficient to induce barrier dysfunction in vitro and vascular leak in vivo, independently of viral replication and the ACE2 receptor. We identify an S-triggered transcriptional response associated with extracellular matrix reorganization and TGF-ß signaling. Using genetic knockouts and specific inhibitors, we demonstrate that glycosaminoglycans, integrins, and the TGF-ß signaling axis are required for S-mediated barrier dysfunction. Notably, we show that SARS-CoV-2 infection caused leak in vivo, which was reduced by inhibiting integrins. Our findings offer mechanistic insight into SARS-CoV-2-triggered vascular leak, providing a starting point for development of therapies targeting COVID-19.

Multivalent viral particles elicit safe and efficient immunoprotection against Nipah Hendra and Ebola viruses.

Experimental vaccines for the deadly zoonotic Nipah (NiV), Hendra (HeV), and Ebola (EBOV) viruses have focused on targeting individual viruses, although their geographical and bat reservoir host overlaps warrant creation of multivalent vaccines. Here we explored whether replication-incompetent pseudotyped vesicular stomatitis virus (VSV) virions or NiV-based virus-like particles (VLPs) were suitable multivalent vaccine platforms by co-incorporating multiple surface glycoproteins from NiV, HeV, and EBOV onto these virions. We then enhanced the vaccines' thermotolerance using carbohydrates to enhance applicability in global regions that lack cold-chain infrastructure. Excitingly, in a Syrian hamster model of disease, the VSV multivalent vaccine elicited safe, strong, and protective neutralizing antibody responses against challenge with NiV, HeV, or EBOV. Our study provides proof-of-principle evidence that replication-incompetent multivalent viral particle vaccines are sufficient to provide protection against multiple zoonotic deadly viruses with high pandemic potential.

Discovery and Genomic Characterization of a Novel Henipavirus, Angavokely Virus, from Fruit Bats in Madagascar.

The genus Henipavirus (family Paramyxoviridae) currently comprises seven viruses, four of which have demonstrated prior evidence of zoonotic capacity. These include the biosafety level 4 agents Hendra (HeV) and Nipah (NiV) viruses, which circulate naturally in pteropodid fruit bats. Here, we describe and characterize Angavokely virus (AngV), a divergent henipavirus identified in urine samples from wild, Madagascar fruit bats. We report the nearly complete 16,740-nucleotide genome of AngV, which encodes the six major henipavirus structural proteins (nucleocapsid, phosphoprotein, matrix, fusion, glycoprotein, and L polymerase). Within the phosphoprotein (P) gene, we identify an alternative start codon encoding the AngV C protein and a putative mRNA editing site where the insertion of one or two guanine residues encodes, respectively, additional V and W proteins. In other paramyxovirus systems, C, V, and W are accessory proteins involved in antagonism of host immune responses during infection. Phylogenetic analysis suggests that AngV is ancestral to all four previously described bat henipaviruses-HeV, NiV, Cedar virus (CedV), and Ghanaian bat virus (GhV)-but evolved more recently than rodent- and shrew-derived henipaviruses, Mojiang (MojV), Gamak (GAKV), and Daeryong (DARV) viruses. Predictive structure-based alignments suggest that AngV is unlikely to bind ephrin receptors, which mediate cell entry for all other known bat henipaviruses. Identification of the AngV receptor is needed to clarify the virus's potential host range. The presence of V and W proteins in the AngV genome suggest that the virus could be pathogenic following zoonotic spillover. IMPORTANCE Henipaviruses include highly pathogenic emerging zoonotic viruses, derived from bat, rodent, and shrew reservoirs. Bat-borne Hendra (HeV) and Nipah (NiV) are the most well-known henipaviruses, for which no effective antivirals or vaccines for humans have been described. Here, we report the discovery and characterization of a novel henipavirus, Angavokely virus (AngV), isolated from wild fruit bats in Madagascar. Genomic characterization of AngV reveals all major features associated with pathogenicity in other henipaviruses, suggesting that AngV could be pathogenic following spillover to human hosts. Our work suggests that AngV is an ancestral bat henipavirus that likely uses viral entry pathways distinct from those previously described for HeV and NiV. In Madagascar, bats are consumed as a source of human food, presenting opportunities for cross-species transmission. Characterization of novel henipaviruses and documentation of their pathogenic and zoonotic potential are essential to predicting and preventing the emergence of future zoonoses that cause pandemics.

Genome-wide bidirectional CRISPR screens identify mucins as host factors modulating SARS-CoV-2 infection.

Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) causes a range of symptoms in infected individuals, from mild respiratory illness to acute respiratory distress syndrome. A systematic understanding of host factors influencing viral infection is critical to elucidate SARS-CoV-2-host interactions and the progression of Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19). Here, we conducted genome-wide CRISPR knockout and activation screens in human lung epithelial cells with endogenous expression of the SARS-CoV-2 entry factors ACE2 and TMPRSS2. We uncovered proviral and antiviral factors across highly interconnected host pathways, including clathrin transport, inflammatory signaling, cell-cycle regulation, and transcriptional and epigenetic regulation. We further identified mucins, a family of high molecular weight glycoproteins, as a prominent viral restriction network that inhibits SARS-CoV-2 infection in vitro and in murine models. These mucins also inhibit infection of diverse respiratory viruses. This functional landscape of SARS-CoV-2 host factors provides a physiologically relevant starting point for new host-directed therapeutics and highlights airway mucins as a host defense mechanism.

Novel Roles of the Nipah Virus Attachment Glycoprotein and Its Mobility in Early and Late Membrane Fusion Steps.

The Paramyxoviridae family comprises important pathogens that include measles (MeV), mumps, parainfluenza, and the emerging deadly zoonotic Nipah virus (NiV) and Hendra virus (HeV). Paramyxoviral entry into cells requires viral-cell membrane fusion, and formation of paramyxoviral pathognomonic syncytia requires cell-cell membrane fusion. Both events are coordinated by intricate interactions between the tetrameric attachment (G/H/HN) and trimeric fusion (F) glycoproteins. We report that receptor binding induces conformational changes in NiV G that expose its stalk domain, which triggers F through a cascade from prefusion to prehairpin intermediate (PHI) to postfusion conformations, executing membrane fusion. To decipher how the NiV G stalk may trigger F, we introduced cysteines along the G stalk to increase tetrameric strength and restrict stalk mobility. While most point mutants displayed near-wild-type levels of cell surface expression and receptor binding, most yielded increased NiV G oligomeric strength, and showed remarkably strong defects in syncytium formation. Furthermore, most of these mutants displayed stronger F/G interactions and significant defects in their ability to trigger F, indicating that NiV G stalk mobility is key to proper F triggering via moderate G/F interactions. Also remarkably, a mutant capable of triggering F and of fusion pore formation yielded little syncytium formation, implicating G or G/F interactions in a late step occurring post fusion pore formation, such as the extensive fusion pore expansion required for syncytium formation. This study uncovers novel mechanisms by which the G stalk and its oligomerization/mobility affect G/F interactions, the triggering of F, and a late fusion pore expansion step-exciting novel findings for paramyxoviral attachment glycoproteins. IMPORTANCE The important Paramyxoviridae family includes measles, mumps, human parainfluenza, and the emerging deadly zoonotic Nipah virus (NiV) and Hendra virus (HeV). The deadly emerging NiV can cause neurologic and respiratory symptoms in humans with a >60% mortality rate. NiV has two surface proteins, the receptor binding protein (G) and fusion (F) glycoproteins. They mediate the required membrane fusion during viral entry into host cells and during syncytium formation, a hallmark of paramyxoviral and NiV infections. We previously discovered that the G stalk domain is important for triggering F (via largely unknown mechanisms) to induce membrane fusion. Here, we uncovered new roles and mechanisms by which the G stalk and its mobility modulate the triggering of F and also unexpectedly affect a very late step in membrane fusion, namely fusion pore expansion. Importantly, these novel findings may extend to other paramyxoviruses, offering new potential targets for therapeutic interventions.

A TMPRSS2 inhibitor acts as a pan-SARS-CoV-2 prophylactic and therapeutic.

The COVID-19 pandemic caused by the SARS-CoV-2 virus remains a global public health crisis. Although widespread vaccination campaigns are underway, their efficacy is reduced owing to emerging variants of concern1,2. Development of host-directed therapeutics and prophylactics could limit such resistance and offer urgently needed protection against variants of concern3,4. Attractive pharmacological targets to impede viral entry include type-II transmembrane serine proteases (TTSPs) such as TMPRSS2; these proteases cleave the viral spike protein to expose the fusion peptide for cell entry, and thus have an essential role in the virus lifecycle5,6. Here we identify and characterize a small-molecule compound, N-0385, which exhibits low nanomolar potency and a selectivity index of higher than 106 in inhibiting SARS-CoV-2 infection in human lung cells and in donor-derived colonoids7. In Calu-3 cells it inhibits the entry of the SARS-CoV-2 variants of concern B.1.1.7 (Alpha), B.1.351 (Beta), P.1 (Gamma) and B.1.617.2 (Delta). Notably, in the K18-human ACE2 transgenic mouse model of severe COVID-19, we found that N-0385 affords a high level of prophylactic and therapeutic benefit after multiple administrations or even after a single administration. Together, our findings show that TTSP-mediated proteolytic maturation of the spike protein is critical for SARS-CoV-2 infection in vivo, and suggest that N-0385 provides an effective early treatment option against COVID-19 and emerging SARS-CoV-2 variants of concern.

Ecology, evolution and spillover of coronaviruses from bats.

In the past two decades, three coronaviruses with ancestral origins in bats have emerged and caused widespread outbreaks in humans, including severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2). Since the first SARS epidemic in 2002-2003, the appreciation of bats as key hosts of zoonotic coronaviruses has advanced rapidly. More than 4,000 coronavirus sequences from 14 bat families have been identified, yet the true diversity of bat coronaviruses is probably much greater. Given that bats are the likely evolutionary source for several human coronaviruses, including strains that cause mild upper respiratory tract disease, their role in historic and future pandemics requires ongoing investigation. We review and integrate information on bat-coronavirus interactions at the molecular, tissue, host and population levels. We identify critical gaps in knowledge of bat coronaviruses, which relate to spillover and pandemic risk, including the pathways to zoonotic spillover, the infection dynamics within bat reservoir hosts, the role of prior adaptation in intermediate hosts for zoonotic transmission and the viral genotypes or traits that predict zoonotic capacity and pandemic potential. Filling these knowledge gaps may help prevent the next pandemic.

SARS-CoV-2 Spike triggers barrier dysfunction and vascular leak via integrins and TGF-ß signaling.

Severe COVID-19 is associated with epithelial and endothelial barrier dysfunction within the lung as well as in distal organs. While it is appreciated that an exaggerated inflammatory response is associated with barrier dysfunction, the triggers of this pathology are unclear. Here, we report that cell-intrinsic interactions between the Spike (S) glycoprotein of SARS-CoV-2 and epithelial/endothelial cells are sufficient to trigger barrier dysfunction in vitro and vascular leak in vivo , independently of viral replication and the ACE2 receptor. We identify an S-triggered transcriptional response associated with extracellular matrix reorganization and TGF-ß signaling. Using genetic knockouts and specific inhibitors, we demonstrate that glycosaminoglycans, integrins, and the TGF-ß signaling axis are required for S-mediated barrier dysfunction. Our findings suggest that S interactions with barrier cells are a contributing factor to COVID-19 disease severity and offer mechanistic insight into SARS-CoV-2 triggered vascular leak, providing a starting point for development of therapies targeting COVID-19 pathogenesis.

SARS-CoV-2 infection of olfactory epithelial cells and neurons drives acute lung injury and lethal COVID-19 in mice.

Lethal COVID-19 is associated with respiratory failure that is thought to be caused by acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) secondary to pulmonary infection. To date, the cellular pathogenesis has been inferred from studies describing the expression of ACE2, a transmembrane protein required for SARS-CoV-2 infection, and detection of viral RNA or protein in infected humans, model animals, and cultured cells. To functionally test the cellular mechanisms of COVID-19, we generated hACE2 fl animals in which human ACE2 (hACE2) is expressed from the mouse Ace2 locus in a manner that permits cell-specific, Cre-mediated loss of function. hACE2 fl animals developed lethal weight loss and hypoxemia within 7 days of exposure to SARS-CoV-2 that was associated with pulmonary infiltrates, intravascular thrombosis and patchy viral infection of lung epithelial cells. Deletion of hACE2 in lung epithelial cells prevented viral infection of the lung, but not weight loss, hypoxemia or death. Inhalation of SARS-CoV-2 by hACE2 fl animals resulted in early infection of sustentacular cells with subsequent infection of neurons in the neighboring olfactory bulb and cerebral cortexâ€" events that did not require lung epithelial cell infection. Pharmacologic ablation of the olfactory epithelium or Foxg1 Cre mediated deletion of hACE2 in olfactory epithelial cells and neurons prevented lethality and neuronal infection following SARS-CoV-2 infection. Conversely, transgenic expression of hACE2 specifically in olfactory epithelial cells and neurons in Foxg1 Cre ; LSL- hACE2 mice was sufficient to confer neuronal infection associated with respiratory failure and death. These studies establish mouse loss and gain of function genetic models with which to genetically dissect viral-host interactions and demonstrate that lethal disease due to respiratory failure may arise from extrapulmonary infection of the olfactory epithelium and brain. Future therapeutic efforts focused on preventing olfactory epithelial infection may be an effective means of protecting against severe COVID-19.

An increase in glycoprotein concentration on extracellular virions dramatically alters vaccinia virus infectivity and pathogenesis without impacting immunogenicity.

The extracellular virion (EV) form of Orthopoxviruses is required for cell-to-cell spread and pathogenesis, and is the target of neutralizing antibodies in the protective immune response. EV have a double envelope that contains several unique proteins that are involved in its intracellular envelopment and/or subsequent infectivity. One of these, F13, is involved in both EV formation and infectivity. Here, we report that replacement of vaccinia virus F13L with the molluscum contagiosum virus homolog, MC021L, results in the production of EV particles with significantly increased levels of EV glycoproteins, which correlate with a small plaque phenotype. Using a novel fluorescence-activated virion sorting assay to isolate EV populations based on glycoprotein content we determine that EV containing either higher or lower levels of glycoproteins are less infectious, suggesting that there is an optimal concentration of glycoproteins in the outer envelope that is required for maximal infectivity of EV. This optimal glycoprotein concentration was required for lethality and induction of pathology in a cutaneous model of animal infection, but was not required for induction of a protective immune response. Therefore, our results demonstrate that there is a sensitive balance between glycoprotein incorporation, infectivity, and pathogenesis, and that manipulation of EV glycoprotein levels can produce vaccine vectors in which pathologic side effects are attenuated without a marked diminution in induction of protective immunity.